The shocking deportation of undocumented Indian immigrants from the USA chained and shackled has brought the menace of human trafficking into the limelight like never before. Let us be very clear, this is not a modern phenomenon. Human trafficking is an ancient and enduring crime. It is a persistent shadow across all civilisations and throughout history. The story of human trafficking stretches from ancient India to the globally connected present. It reveals a continuous pattern of exploitation. Paradoxically, it also highlights the remarkable resilience and ongoing fight for human dignity. A prime example of this global tragedy is India’s history, which illustrates the persistence of exploitative systems across centuries. To comprehensively understand this dark phenomenon, we must look beyond India. This will make us realise that human trafficking has been rampant in Asia and worldwide for thousands of years. I shall try to trace the development of human trafficking in India, drawing comparisons with other parts of the world and demonstrating the grim reality of its contemporary existence.
Ancient Roots: The Foundations of Exploitation
The caste system and wartime plunder inextricably linked India’s history of human trafficking to ancient times. Our ancient literature frequently refers to Das Pratha or the tradition of slavery. War captives and those burdened by debt frequently faced slavery or servitude during the Mauryan and Gupta eras (approximately 322 BCE–550 CE). India wasn’t the only place where these practices existed. Even in Hammurabi’s Code, one of history’s earliest legal systems, kidnapping was a serious crime, punishable by death, reflecting its deep-seated presence in society.
The caste system in India intensified the exploitative practices. Individuals born into lower castes faced lives of inherited and inescapable servitude. The vulnerability of the marginalised, because of systemic inequality, created ideal conditions for trafficking to flourish. The boundaries separating slavery, servitude, and trafficking were frequently indistinct, leading to the normalisation of exploitative practices.
The similarities to other ancient civilisations are remarkable; for instance, in Rome, almost 40% of the population was enslaved. A well-organised system of slave trading existed in the Roman Empire. The captured individuals from conquered territories were sold across its vast expanse. What one finds both strange and remarkable is that these slaves worked not only as labourers but also as teachers, doctors, and entertainers.
Medieval Shifts: The Globalisation of Trafficking
India’s trafficking landscape underwent significant transformation during the medieval period, especially after the arrival of Muslim invaders between the 10th and 18th centuries. Extensive trafficking of Hindu captives—mostly women and children—followed these conquests. They were sold in the slave markets across Persia, Central Asia, and the Middle East. However, Mughal emperors held differing views on slavery. Akbar attempted to curtail it, whereas Aurangzeb increased its prevalence. This era also marked the beginning of the devshirme system in the Ottoman Empire. Under this system, Christian boys from the Balkans were kidnapped and forcibly converted to Islam. They were trained as soldiers and administrators. The shared characteristics of these systems underscore the international reach of trafficking, demonstrating its vast, continent-spanning networks.
Meanwhile, across Europe, Vikings were creating a powerful presence in the global slave-trade market. These notorious raiders didn’t just plunder gold and silver; they also captured people from coastal communities and sold them in markets as far away as modern-day Istanbul and Baghdad. The Arab slave trade was equally widespread, and it operated for over a thousand years. It created vast networks that covered East Africa, Central Asia, and Eastern Europe. Unlike later forms of trafficking, the Arab slave trade wasn’t racially motivated. Any vulnerable person could become a victim, irrespective of their ethnicity. This globalised trafficking network laid the groundwork for the even more devastating transatlantic slave trade that would follow. European traders kidnapped young Africans and sold them to Western countries, especially the newly colonised Americas. More about that later.
Colonial Exploitation: The Indentured Labour System
The advent of European influence in India significantly altered the course of trafficking. Between the 16th and 18th centuries, the Portuguese transformed Goa into a major hub for the slave trade. They supplied the enslaved Indians to markets in Europe, the Arab world, and Southeast Asia. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) forcibly relocated thousands of Indians from Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala to its colonies in Indonesia and South Africa. However, the British perfected the exploitative practices. They replaced slavery with indentured servitude, which was another term for legalised slavery, which adversely affected millions of people in India.
During the British Raj, recruiters, known as Arkatias in the present Hindi belt of India and Kangni in southeast Asia, travelled through impoverished Indian villages, spinning tales of prosperity abroad. They promised high salaries and comfortable living in places such as Mauritius, Fiji, Trinidad, Guyana, South Africa, and Burma. What actually happened was very different. Brutal conditions, such as physical and sexual abuse and extreme overwork, were commonplace for the workers. Numerous individuals died prematurely, failing to fulfil their contractual obligations. Although it was abolished in 1917, the system’s impact continues to be felt even today. People of Indian descent in former colonies still experience discrimination, a lasting consequence of colonialism.
Exploitation wasn’t limited to Britain; other nations participated as well. The enslavement and transportation of 12 to 15 million Africans across the Atlantic to the Americas constitutes one of history’s most horrifying crimes against humanity. The sufferings of African slaves have been poignantly described in Alex Haley’s historical novel “Roots: The Saga of an American Family” published in 1976. The book traces Haley’s own ancestry back to Kunta Kinte, a Mandinka warrior from The Gambia. Kunta Kinte was captured in the late 18th century and sold into slavery in America. The novel follows his descendants over multiple generations, portraying their struggles under slavery, their fight for freedom, and their eventual survival and resilience.
Modern nations were built on the foundation of the transatlantic slave trade, a vast enterprise that irrevocably transformed societies across the Atlantic through the enslavement of millions. The similarities between the transatlantic slave trade and indentured servitude are striking; both systems relied on deception, coercion, and the exploitation of vulnerable groups.
Independence and New Challenges
India’s independence in 1947 marked a shift in the methods of human trafficking but did not eliminate the practice itself. Human traffickers quickly took advantage of the enormous refugee crisis caused by India’s partition. The vulnerability of women and children increased dramatically. Many were forced into prostitution or bonded servitude. The same pattern emerged again during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War, which resulted in further displacement and increased vulnerability to trafficking.
The oil boom in the Gulf states marked another significant change in the 1970s. Job seekers from Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh comprised a significant portion of the thousands of Indians seeking work abroad. They became victims of illegal agents, the dalals or dallas. Countless workers, especially in construction and domestic service, suffered exploitation such as stolen wages, confiscated passports, and forced servitude. This contemporary form of exploitation reflects the conditions faced by indentured servants a century earlier, underscoring the unchanging circumstances for those pursuing improved lives.
Modern Trafficking: A Globalised Crime
Today’s trafficking networks operate on a global scale. India has become a source as well as a transit centre for the traffickers. The number of people immigrating illegally to Western countries has dramatically increased. Many Indians resort to dangerous journeys arranged by human smugglers, either through Mexico to the US or via the Balkans to Europe. The perilous journeys often result in death or exploitation through forced labour and sex trafficking.
There’s a striking resemblance between historical and modern human trafficking. Like the Arkatis who once lured victims with false promises of plantation work, modern traffickers employ similar tactics using fake visas and fraudulent job offers. The same desperation that pushed Indians toward indentured labour contracts in the 1800s compels people to undertake risky illegal migration today. The influx of trafficked persons poses a significant challenge for India, particularly along its borders with Bangladesh and Myanmar. Rohingya refugees are particularly vulnerable. They often fall victim to exploitation in forms such as prostitution, forced labour, and the criminal trade of human organs.
Breaking the Cycle: Lessons from History
It is important to understand the history of trafficking to address this evil practice. Just as the abolition of indentured servitude necessitated reform, our current problems also require stronger border controls, increased public awareness, stricter regulation of recruitment agencies, and international collaboration among law enforcement agencies. Similar to the eventual demise of indentured slavery, concerted action and policy change can overcome modern human trafficking. Along with law enforcement, we must also address the underlying issues that make people vulnerable, such as poverty, lack of education, and limited economic options.
The UN Convention on Transnational Organised Crime (2000) has established the first internationally agreed-upon definition of human trafficking. It has also set up a comprehensive framework for the prevention, prosecution, and protection of victims. History, however, demonstrates traffickers’ ability to adapt to technological and global advancements. A serious threat has emerged in the form of cyber-trafficking, where traffickers utilise online platforms to exploit victims. Areas of conflict in West Asia are becoming centres for human trafficking.
Conclusion: A Legacy We Must Dismantle
Human trafficking isn’t merely exploitation; it’s a testament to human resilience and the enduring fight for dignity. Throughout history, from ancient Mesopotamia to modern India, a persistent, dark thread has adapted to changing circumstances. Egypt’s pyramids and the British Empire’s plantations serve as stark reminders of past exploitation, yet also testify to the enduring strength of those who resisted oppression.
Today’s challenge involves dismantling this inherited system. This problem needs a comprehensive solution in the form of robust legal frameworks, international partnerships, and focused efforts to address the root causes of vulnerability. We can only sever this long-standing, dark thread in human history through a sustained, collaborative effort. The battle against human trafficking transcends legal and political boundaries; it is a fundamental moral obligation, a test of our compassion, and a challenge requiring our unwavering resolve.
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human trafficking, Indian immigrants deportation, slavery history, indentured labor, modern trafficking networks, caste system exploitation, colonial exploitation, illegal migration, trafficking prevention, human smuggling, UPSC, IAS, IPS, CDS, CBSE, USA, British Raj, Gambia, Ottoman Empire, Roman Empire, Dutch, Portugal, Goa, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Muslims, Hindus, Fiji, Guyana, Myanmar, Trinidad
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