Today we are going to talk of two formidable global powers that have extensive histories. Their mutual equations have undergone a remarkable evolution over the centuries. One is a former superpower’s successor state and the other is a fast-rising wannabe superpower. From the earliest encounters between ancient Chinese dynasties and the nascent Russian state to the contemporary era of strategic partnerships and converging interests, this bilateral relationship has weathered periods of cooperation, conflict, and intricate diplomatic manoeuvring. Let us examine the ebbs and flows of the China-Russia dynamic, the historical context, key milestones, territorial disputes, ideological rifts, and strategic interests that have shaped this intricate geopolitical tapestry.
Khanate and Khaganate
You will find me using the terms Khanate and Khaganate here. We should not confuse the terms “Khanate” and “Khaganate”. These refer to different ruling systems that existed in Central Asian and Mongolian history.
A Khanate was ruled by a Khan, which means “king” or “ruler.” Khanates were common between the 10th and 16th centuries. They were often made up of nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes that moved from place to place herding animals and trading goods. Khanates were known for their skilled military forces and frequently fought wars to expand their territory.
A Khaganate was ruled by a Khagan, which means “emperor” or “supreme ruler.” This was a higher rank than a Khan. Khaganates were extensive empires that controlled multiple smaller Khanates within their territories. They existed mainly between the 6th and 13th centuries. The famous Mongol Empire was a Khaganate ruled by Khagans.
So, a Khanate was a single kingdom ruled by a Khan, while a Khaganate was a larger empire ruled by a supreme Khagan that had control over various Khanates within it.
Ancient Encounters and Early Interactions
The earliest recorded interactions between Chinese and Russian entities can be traced back to the 6th century AD. The Turkic Khaganate, a nomadic confederation with ties to the Chinese Tang Dynasty, engaged in trade and diplomatic exchanges with the Rus’ people. The Rus’ were the predecessors of modern Russia. However, it was not until the 13th century that more substantive contacts were established between the two civilisations.
The Turkic Khaganate was a major empire that existed in Central Asia during medieval times. It was established around the year 552 by the Ashina clan of the Göktürks, under the leadership of Bumin Qaghan and his brother Istämi. This empire succeeded the Rouran Khaganate and rapidly expanded across a vast territory stretching from Manchuria in the east to the Black Sea in the west. It was the first transcontinental empire in the region. The official language was Old Turkic. This was the first political entity to officially use the name “Turk.” The Old Turkic script was also developed during this time.
The empire’s state religion was Tengrism, which is a form of shamanism practised in Central Asia. Tengrism is quite an interesting creed. It originated in the grasslands of Asia. Its followers worship Tengri, which represents the sky and universe. Tengri is not seen as god-like in other religions, but more like the whole universe itself. Tengrism teaches living peacefully with nature and the cosmos. Worshippers respect their ancestors and the laws of the universe. Tengrism involves shamanism and animism. They believe in spirits in nature and try to communicate with the spirit world. They respect and care for the natural world. It was the predominant religion for many ancient peoples and empires in Asia, like the Mongols, Turks, Huns and others. Some medieval kingdoms, like the Mongol Empire, made Tengrism their official state religion. During the Soviet era, Tengrism almost became extinct in the Central Asian Republics. After the Soviet Union ended, it showed signs of revival among Turkic and Mongolic groups in Central Asia.
The Turkic Khaganate played an important role in shaping the history and culture of Central Asia. However, it eventually split into the Eastern and Western Turkic Khaganates because of internal conflicts and civil wars. Both successor states later collapsed, with the Eastern branch conquered by China’s Tang dynasty in 630, and the Western branch falling in 603. A Second Turkic Khaganate emerged in 682 but only lasted until 744 when it was overthrown by the Uyghur Khaganate.
Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan Dynasty in China (1271-1368), sent diplomatic missions to the principalities of Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod. This helped establish trade routes and cultural exchanges between China and the emerging Russian states. These early interactions, though sporadic and limited in scope, laid the foundation for future engagement between the two powers.
The Nerchinsk Treaty and Territorial Delineation
The 17th century marked a pivotal juncture in the China-Russia relationship. The Qing Dynasty and the Russian Tsardom engaged in their first major diplomatic encounter. The Treaty of Nerchinsk, signed in 1689, is widely regarded as a seminal event that delineated the borders between the two empires and established a framework for peaceful coexistence. The treaty aimed to resolve territorial disputes that had arisen because of the expansion of Russian influence into the Amur River region, an area historically under Chinese influence. The agreement demarcated the border between the two empires, with the Argun River serving as the boundary line. It also facilitated trade and the exchange of envoys.
Despite the treaty’s efforts to promote stability, tensions continued to simmer for centuries. Both empires sought to expand their respective spheres of influence in Central Asia and the Far East. This period witnessed the sowing of seeds for future territorial disputes and conflicts between the two powers.
The Dzungar Khanate Conflict and Expanding Rivalries
The late 17th and early 18th centuries witnessed a complex interplay of rivalries and conflicts involving China, Russia, and the Dzungar Khanate, a powerful Mongol state in Central Asia. While not directly engaged in warfare, both the Qing Dynasty and the Russian Empire sought to exert influence in the region, often clashing with the Dzungars.
The Qing Dynasty, under the leadership of the Kangxi Emperor, launched a series of military campaigns against the Dzungars between 1696 and 1757. The Khanate was finally annexed by the Qing Empire. Simultaneously, Russia expanded its presence in Central Asia through a series of treaties and military campaigns. It gradually encroached upon the territories historically claimed by China.
This period marked the beginning of a protracted rivalry between China and Russia for influence in Central Asia, a dynamic that would shape their relationship for centuries to come. The subjugation of the Dzungar Khanate allowed the Qing Dynasty to consolidate its control over the Xinjiang region, while Russia’s expansion brought it into closer proximity with Chinese spheres of influence, setting the stage for future conflicts.
The “Great Game” and Expansion into Central Asia
The 19th century witnessed a crucial shift in the China-Russia dynamic. The Russian Empire embarked on an ambitious campaign of territorial expansion into Central Asia, which was historically within China’s sphere of influence. This period also witnessed the onset of the “Great Game,” wherein Russia and Britain engaged in a strategic rivalry for control over the region, with China often caught in the crosshairs.
Russia conquered the Khanates of Khiva and Kokand in the 1860s and 1870s. It also encroached on Outer Manchuria and the Amur River region. This brought it into direct conflict with China’s territorial claims and strategic interests. This resulted in border disputes, diplomatic tensions, and occasional skirmishes between the two empires, such as the Yili Crisis of 1881, in which Russia occupied parts of Xinjiang before withdrawing under pressure from Britain and other powers.
The Russo-Japanese War and Shifting Regional Dynamics
The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 marked a turning point in the geopolitical landscape of East Asia. This had significant implications for the China-Russia relationship. Russia’s defeat at the hands of the rising power of Japan resulted in the loss of its influence in Northeast Asia, including the ceding of territories such as Port Arthur (Lüshun) and the southern half of Sakhalin Island.
While China was not directly involved in the war, the conflict underscored the shifting balance of power in the region and the waning influence of both China and Russia in the face of Japan’s ascendancy. This event resulted in increased tensions and diplomatic manoeuvring between China and Russia in the years to come, as they sought to adapt to the new regional dynamics and reassert their respective spheres of influence.
The Sino-Soviet Split and Ideological Divergence
The early 20th century witnessed a profound ideological rupture between China and the newly formed Soviet Union, despite their shared communist roots. The Sino-Soviet split, which began in the late 1950s and culminated in the 1960s, was fuelled by a combination of ideological differences, territorial disputes, and divergent strategic interests. The Soviet Union, under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev, sought to promote a more moderate form of communism, while Mao Zedong’s China advocated for a more revolutionary and confrontational approach. This ideological rift was further exacerbated by long-standing territorial disputes, particularly over regions like Xinjiang and Outer Mongolia, where the Soviet Union had historically exerted influence.
The culmination of these tensions was the Sino-Soviet border conflict of 1969. The armed clashes between Chinese and Soviet forces along the Ussuri River highlighted the depth of the ideological and territorial rifts between the two nations. This conflict resulted in many casualties on both sides. It marked the nadir of Sino-Soviet relations and ushered in a period of heightened hostility and distrust between the two communist powers.
The Post-Cold War Rapprochement and Strategic Partnership
The end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union ushered in a new era of rapprochement between China and Russia. The shared experience of navigating the turbulent transition from communism to a more market-oriented economic model, as well as the perceived threat of Western dominance, provided fertile ground for a strategic partnership to emerge.
In 1996, China and Russia signed the “Strategic Partnership for Mutual Coordination in the 21st Century,” marking a significant milestone in their bilateral relations. This partnership was further solidified in 2001 by the signing of the Sino-Russian Treaty of Good-Neighbourliness and Friendly Cooperation, which aimed to promote cooperation in areas such as security, trade, and energy.
The treaty also sought to resolve lingering territorial disputes, with both sides agreeing to respect the existing border demarcation and not make further territorial claims. This marked a significant step forward in addressing one of the long-standing sources of tension between the two nations.
Energy Cooperation and Economic Ties
One of the cornerstone elements of the post-Cold War China-Russia partnership has been energy cooperation. With China’s rapidly growing economy fuelling an ever-increasing demand for natural resources, and Russia possessing vast reserves of oil and natural gas, the two nations have forged extensive economic ties centred on energy trade.
The Siberian gas pipeline began operations in 2019. The Siberian Power Transmission Line aims to deliver hydroelectric power from Russia to China. These projects not only meet China’s growing energy needs but also provide Russia with a crucial market for its energy exports, reducing its reliance on European markets.
China and Russia have also expanded their economic ties to other sectors, including trade, investment, and infrastructure development. Bilateral trade between the two countries has grown significantly in recent years, with China emerging as Russia’s largest trading partner. In addition, Chinese investment in Russia has surged, particularly in sectors such as telecommunications, manufacturing, and transportation.
The two nations have collaborated on ambitious infrastructure projects, such as the China-Mongolia-Russia Economic Corridor and the Eurasian Land Bridge, aimed at enhancing connectivity and facilitating trade between Asia and Europe.
Military Cooperation and Strategic Alignment
Besides economic ties, military cooperation has emerged as a significant aspect of the China-Russia partnership. Both countries have conducted joint military exercises, exchanged military technology, and coordinated their positions on international security issues.
The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), founded in 2001 by China, Russia, and several Central Asian states, has served as a platform for enhancing military and security cooperation between the two countries. Through the SCO, China and Russia have conducted joint counterterrorism operations, shared intelligence, and coordinated their responses to regional security threats, particularly in Central Asia.
China’s increasing assertiveness in the South China Sea and Russia’s assertive actions in Eastern Europe have led to a convergence of interests between the two countries on certain geopolitical issues. Both China and Russia have adopted similar positions on issues such as sovereignty disputes, non-interference in internal affairs, and opposition to Western-led interventionism.
This alignment of strategic interests has led to closer coordination between China and Russia on the global stage. The two powers frequently vote in tandem at international forums such as the United Nations Security Council. Despite occasional differences on specific issues, such as Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014, the overall trend has been one of growing alignment and coordination between the two powers.
Challenges and Controversies
Despite the deepening partnership between China and Russia, the relationship has challenges and controversies. One major source of tension is territorial disputes, particularly regarding the status of islands in the Amur River and the exact delineation of the border in certain areas.
Historical grievances, stemming from past conflicts and unequal treaties, continue to linger beneath the surface. These often resurface in diplomatic exchanges between the two countries. While both sides have made efforts to address these issues through diplomatic means, they remain sensitive topics that have the potential to strain bilateral relations.
Another point of contention is asymmetry in the China-Russia relationship. Russia is uneasy about China’s rapidly growing economy and military capabilities. Russian strategists worry about China’s expanding influence in Central Asia and its potential to challenge Russia’s dominance in the region.
The asymmetry in the economic relationship, with China being the larger partner in terms of trade and investment, has raised questions about the long-term sustainability of the partnership. It remains to be seen whether it serves Russia’s interests as effectively as it does China’s.
The China-Russia relationship is not immune to external pressures and geopolitical developments. The ongoing trade tensions between China and the United States, as well as Russia’s strained relations with Western powers over issues such as Ukraine and Syria, have prompted both countries to seek closer cooperation to counter external pressure and safeguard their respective interests.
Conclusion
The China-Russia relationship has evolved significantly over the centuries. Despite periods of conflict, rivalry, and ideological divergence, the two countries have increasingly found common ground in recent years. Their dynamic is influenced by shared geopolitical interests, economic complementarity, and a desire to counterbalance Western dominance.
The post-Cold War era has witnessed China and Russia leveraging their complementary strengths to enhance their respective global positions while also addressing long-standing sources of tension and mistrust. However, challenges remain, including territorial disputes, economic imbalances, and external pressures from other major powers. Navigating these challenges will require sustained diplomatic efforts, pragmatic cooperation, and a willingness to address each other’s concerns to maintain the stability and resilience of the China-Russia relationship in the face of an uncertain geopolitical landscape.
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