Just imagine if India was not colonised by foreign powers - be they the Mughals, or the British. What if, like Japan and China, India had evolved on its own? What sort of India we would have had today? What would have been modern India’s trajectory had it remained free from Mughal and British colonisation?
India’s history before the British Raj (1858–1947) and Mughal rule (1526–1857) is a testament to its intellectual and technological prowess. Its genius spanned mathematics, astronomy, medicine, metallurgy, engineering, and more. Rooted in ancient and medieval traditions, these contributions shaped global knowledge systems.
Pre-Colonial Scientific and Technological Achievements
Mathematics: The Cradle of Numerical Innovation
Indian mathematics laid foundational stones for global mathematical thought. The Sulba Sutras (c. 800–500 BCE), part of Vedic literature, detailed geometric principles for altar construction, including approximations of π (3.14) and the Pythagorean theorem, predating Pythagoras. The decimal system and place-value notation, which emerged around the early centuries CE, revolutionised numerical computation. The concept of zero, formalised by Brahmagupta in his Brahmasphutasiddhanta (628 CE), enabled advanced arithmetic and algebra, including operations with negative numbers and quadratic equations.
The medieval period saw further leaps. Bhaskara II’s Lilavati and Bijaganita (12th century) advanced algebra, geometry, and number theory. He introduced concepts akin to the derivative and infinite series. The Kerala School of Mathematics (14th–16th centuries), led by Madhava of Sangamagrama, developed early forms of calculus, including infinite series for trigonometric functions and π, centuries before Newton and Leibniz. These works, preserved in Sanskrit texts, demonstrate a sophisticated mathematical culture. They influenced Persian and Arabic scholars, though limited textual dissemination constrained their global reach.
Astronomy: Mapping the Cosmos
Indian astronomy blended empirical observation with mathematical precision. Aryabhatta’s Aryabhatiya (499 CE) calculated Earth’s circumference (within 1% of modern values). He proposed a heliocentric model where sun is the centre of universe, challenging the prevailing geocentric views that considered earth as the centre of universe. The Surya Siddhanta (c. 400–500 CE) provided algorithms for predicting eclipses and planetary positions, used widely in calendars and navigation. Observatories, such as those built by later astronomers like Varahamihira, supported precise measurements.
By the medieval period, astronomers like Bhaskara II refined planetary models, while the Kerala School computed precise orbital parameters. These advancements, however, were often embedded in astrological frameworks, which sometimes blurred scientific and cultural boundaries. Despite this, Indian astronomical texts were translated into Arabic, influencing Islamic and European astronomy.
Medicine: The Art and Science of Healing
Ayurveda, codified in the Charak Samhita and Sushruta Samhita (c. 600 BCE–200 CE), was a cornerstone of Indian medical science. The Charak Samhita detailed diagnostics, pharmacology, and holistic health principles, emphasising diet and lifestyle. The Sushruta Samhita described over 300 surgical procedures, including cataract surgery, rhinoplasty, and bone-setting, using specialised instruments. Sushruta’s work, often considered the foundation of plastic surgery, showcased advanced anatomical knowledge.
Rasashastra, a medieval alchemical tradition, explored medicinal chemistry, using minerals and metals for treatments. Indian physicians understood concepts like digestion and immunity, and their herbal pharmacopeia was exported across Asia. However, medical knowledge was largely transmitted orally or through manuscripts, limiting standardisation and scalability.
Metallurgy and Engineering: Technological Mastery
India’s metallurgical expertise was globally renowned. The Iron Pillar of Delhi (c. 400 CE), a 7-meter rust-resistant structure, exemplifies advanced ironworking. Wootz steel, a high-carbon crucible steel, was prized for its strength and exported to the Middle East, forming the basis of Damascus swords. Chemical processes, such as zinc distillation, were documented in texts like Rasaratnakara (c. 8th century).
Engineering achievements were equally impressive. The Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 2600–1900 BCE) featured urban planning with grid layouts, drainage systems, and dockyards (e.g., Lothal). Later, temples like those at Khajuraho and Konark (9th–13th centuries) demonstrated architectural precision, with intricate stone carvings and load-bearing designs. Water management systems, including stepwells and reservoirs, showcased hydraulic engineering. However, the absence of mechanised tools limited large-scale infrastructure development.
Navigation and Trade: Connecting the World
India’s maritime expertise facilitated extensive trade networks. Ports like Lothal and Muziris connected India to Rome, Southeast Asia, and China. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century CE) describes Indian shipbuilding, with vessels capable of long-distance voyages. Ancient India’s naval powers like Cholas, Pallavas, Satavahanas and Mauryas etc had advanced navigational knowledge, derived from astronomical observations. Textile production, particularly cotton and muslin, and dyeing techniques like indigo, were technologically advanced, making India a global trade hub.
Ancient Tamil Nadu’s Civilisational Contributions
Recent archaeological excavations in Tamil Nadu have revealed important discoveries about ancient civilisations, especially during the Sangam period (around 600 BCE to 300 CE). At Keeladi, near Madurai, archaeologists found well-planned brick structures, drainage systems, and pottery with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions from about 580 BCE. These discoveries show that Keeladi was a well-organised urban settlement with advanced water management and literacy. A 2,600-year-old terracotta pipeline also shows their impressive engineering skills. Close by, the Konthagai site revealed burial urns containing human skeletal remains, pottery, and jewellery. Digital reconstructions of skulls from this site helped researchers understand the physical features of people from that time. At Adichaunallur, another burial site, urns with skeletal remains, iron tools, and other objects were found. These suggest that the society had advanced metalworking abilities.
Limitations and Context
Despite these achievements, pre-colonial India faced challenges. Knowledge was often siloed within caste-based guilds or oral traditions, limiting dissemination. The lack of a printing press, unlike in China or Europe, restricted the spread of texts. Political fragmentation after the Gupta Empire (c. 550 CE) and during the Mughal period disrupted patronage for scientific institutions. By the 17th century, India lagged in adopting experimental methods and mechanised technologies emerging in Europe, partly due to cultural emphasis on theoretical over applied sciences.
Speculative Analysis: Modern India Without Mughal or British Colonisation
Speculating on an uncolonised India requires careful consideration of historical trends, internal dynamics, and global interactions, while avoiding romanticisation or bias. Without Mughal or British rule, India’s trajectory would depend on its ability to overcome internal challenges and adapt to global scientific and industrial revolutions.
Political and Social Framework
Without Mughal conquest, India might have remained a patchwork of regional kingdoms, such as the Cholas, Vijayanagara, or Rajput states. However, Mauryas built the largest empire ever in the Indian subcontinent and could have set a precedent for India’s unification. A unified polity, akin to a confederation, could have emerged through alliances, as seen in the Maratha Confederacy. Such a structure might have fostered competition and innovation, but persistent rivalries could also have hindered large-scale coordination.
Socially, the caste system and Gurukul based education might have persisted, preserving traditional knowledge but potentially stifling social mobility. Without colonial disruptions, reform movements like those of the 19th century (e.g., Brahmo Samaj) might have been slower, as colonial education exposed Indians to Western ideas of equality and science. However, internal reform impulses, as seen in Jainism or Bhakti movements, could have driven gradual change.
Scientific and Technological Development
Mathematics and Astronomy: The Kerala School’s proto-calculus and astronomical traditions could have evolved further with sustained patronage. A unified India might have established observatories and academies, akin to Europe’s Royal Society, fostering global exchange. Without Mughal isolation from European scientific revolutions, Indian mathematicians might have engaged with figures like Newton, potentially accelerating calculus development.
Medicine: Ayurveda and Rasashastra could have modernised through empirical testing and integration with global medical knowledge. Without colonial suppression of indigenous systems, India might have developed standardised medical institutions, blending herbal and surgical expertise with emerging scientific methods. Vaccination, inspired by smallpox inoculation practices already known in India, could have been an early achievement.
Engineering and Industry: India’s metallurgical and textile expertise could have driven an indigenous industrial revolution, particularly if trade with Europe introduced mechanisation concepts. Water-powered looms or steam technology might have been adapted to India’s cotton industry, leveraging its global market dominance. Urban centres like Pataliputra or Vijayanagara could have become industrial hubs, supported by advanced infrastructure.
Education and Dissemination: The absence of a printing press was a significant bottleneck. An uncolonised India might have adopted movable type from China or developed its own, enabling wider dissemination of knowledge. Gurukuls could have evolved into universities, fostering interdisciplinary research. Ancient India had already established prestigious universities like Nalanda and Vikramashila of Bihar, Takshashila of Punjab, Vallabhi of Gujarat and Kanchi of Tamil Nadu. Even without colonial education systems, literacy rates might have been high. Progressive movements would have ensured that.
Economic and Global Integration
India’s pre-colonial economy was robust, contributing 24–27% of global GDP in the 16th century (Maddison, 2001). Colonialism extracted drained India’s wealth, economist Utsa Patnaik mentions Britain’s transfer of £9.2 trillion in today’s terms. An uncolonised India could have reinvested in infrastructure, trade, and innovation. Maritime prowess might have led to an Indian mercantile empire, competing with Dutch or Portuguese traders.
Globally, an uncolonised India might have been a scientific and cultural peer to Europe, exchanging ideas via trade routes. Participation in the Enlightenment could have accelerated India’s adoption of experimental science, while its mathematical and astronomical traditions influenced global paradigms.
A Plausible Modern India
An uncolonised India in 2025 might resemble a blend of Japan and China: a modern nation with deep cultural roots. It could boast advanced industries in textiles, metallurgy, and pharmaceuticals, built on pre-colonial foundations. Scientific institutions, evolving from gurukuls, might rival global universities, with India leading in fields like mathematics, astronomy, and alternative medicine. Given the ancient Indian genius, research in other fields like space, weaponry and town planning could have become global trendsetters. Politically, a federal structure might balance regional diversity, though tensions could persist. Economically, India might remain a global trade hub, with a GDP reflecting its pre-colonial share, adjusted for modern growth.
Socially, indigenous philosophies like Buddhism or Bhakti could have driven egalitarianism. Culturally, India’s art, literature, and science would reflect a unique synthesis of tradition and modernity, unmarred by colonial erasure. However, without the unifying force of colonial resistance, could India have become a united democracy it is today? This needs to be pondered. If India had had someone with the vision and drive of Otto Von Bismarck, perhaps India today would have a different centre of power.
Conclusion
Pre-colonial India was a beacon of scientific and technological innovation, with enduring contributions in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and engineering. Its limitations—fragmentation, oral transmission, and lack of mechanisation—were significant but not insurmountable. Had India avoided Mughal and British colonisation, it could have leveraged its intellectual and economic strengths to become a modern powerhouse, blending indigenous knowledge with global advancements. While internal challenges might have slowed progress, sustained trade, patronage, and adaptation could have positioned India as a leader in science and industry. This speculative vision, while optimistic, acknowledges the complexities of India’s diverse society and the global context, offering a balanced perspective on its potential trajectory.
British Raj, Mughal Rule, Keeladi, Indus Valley Civilisation, Buddhism, Jainism, Hinduism, Gurukul, Vikramashila, Takshashila, Vallabhi, Kanchi, Cholas, Mauryan Empire, Japan, China, Brahmagupta, Aryabhatta, Bhakti, Dutch, Portuguese, GDP, Ayurveda, Arthashastra,
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